Variable cost free essay sample

Separate the expenses between fixed and variable costs per unit. Using this information and the sales price per unit of $8, compute the break-even point. 5-3. Solution: Therapeutic Systems Fixed CostsVariable Costs (per unit) Rent$120,000 Factory labor$1. 50 Executive under contract$112,000 Raw materials. 70 $232,000$2. 20 4. Break-even analysis (LO2) Draw two break-even graphs—one for a conservative firm using labor-intensive production and another for a capital-intensive firm. Assuming these companies compete within the same industry and have identical sales, explain the impact of changes in sales volume on both firms profits. -4. Solution: Labor-Intensive and capital-intensive break-even graphs The company having the high fixed costs will have lower variable costs than its competitor since it has substituted capital for labor. With a lower variable cost, the high fixed cost company will have a larger contribution margin. Therefore, when sales rise, its profits will increase faster than the low fixed cost firm and when the sales decline, the reverse will be true. We will write a custom essay sample on Variable cost or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 5. Break-even analysis (LO2) Eaton Tool Company has fixed costs of $200,000, sells its units for $56, and has variable costs of $31 per unit. a. Compute the break-even point. b. Ms. Eaton comes up with a new plan to cut fixed costs to $150,000. However, more labor will now be required, which will increase variable costs per unit to $34. The sales price will remain at $56. What is the new break-even point? c. Under the new plan, what is likely to happen to profitability at very high volume levels (compared to the old plan)? 5-5. Solution: Eaton Tool Company a. b. The breakeven level decreases. c. With less operating leverage and a smaller contribution margin, profitability is likely to be less than it would have been at very high volume levels. . Break-even analysis (LO2) Jay Linoleum Company has fixed costs of $70,000. Its product currently sells for $4 per unit and has variable costs per unit of $2. 60. Mr. Thomas, the head of manufacturing, proposes to buy new equipment that will cost $300,000 and drive up fixed costs to $105,000. Although the price will remain at $4 per unit, the increased automation will reduce variable c osts per unit to $2. 25. As a result of Thomass suggestion, will the break-even point go up or down? Compute the necessary numbers. 5-6. Solution: Jay Linoleum Company The break-even point will go up. 7. Cash break-even analysis (LO2) Calloway Cab Company determines its break-even strictly on the basis of cash expenditures related to fixed costs. Its total fixed costs are $400,000, but 20 percent of this value is represented by depreciation. Its contribution margin (price minus variable cost) for each unit is $3. 60. How many units does the firm need to sell to reach the cash break-even point? 5-7. Solution: Calloway Cab Company Cash related fixed costs = Total Fixed Costs – Depreciation = $400,000 – 20% ($400,000) = $400,000 – $80,000 = $320,000 9. Cash break-even analysis (LO2) Boise Timber co. omputes its break-even point strictly on the basis of cash expenditures related to fixed costs. Its total fixed costs are $6,000,000, but 25 percent of this value is represented by depreciation. Its contribution margin (price minus variable cost) for each unit is $4. How many units does the firm need to sell to reach the cash break-even point? 5-9. Solution: Boise Timber Co. Cash related fixed costs = Total Fixed Costs – Depreciation = $6,000,000 – 25% ($6,000,000) = $6,000,000 – $1,500,000 = $4,500,000 10. Degree of leverage (LO2 5) The Sterling Tire Companys income statement for 2010 is as follows: STERLING TIRE COMPANY Income Statement For the Year Ended December 31, 2010 Sales (20,000 tires at $60 each)$1,200,000 Less: Variable costs (20,000 tires at $30)600,000 Fixed costs 400,000 Earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT)200,000 Interest expense 50,000 Earnings before taxes (EBT)150,000 Income tax expense (30%) 45,000 Earnings after taxes (EAT)$ 105,000 Given this income statement, compute the following: a. Degree of operating leverage. b. Degree of financial leverage. c. Degree of combined leverage. d. Break-even point in units. 5-10. Solution: Sterling Tire Company Q = 20,000, P = $60, VC = $30, FC = $400,000, I = $50,000 a. b. c. d.

Concentration camp essays

Concentration camp essays The article that this paper will be based and discussed upon is titled Berthes prison diary, written by Hanna Diamond. Berthes prison diary can be found in the August 1999 issue of History Today, volume 49, pages 43-49. During World War II, it was known that many people suffered. People suffered from the casualties of war, suffered because of their class, but especially because of their race. The group to suffer the most were the Jewish. Over 6 million were killed because of no crime but because of their race. Berthes prison diary is about a woman named Berthe A. and her experience in the French prisons for collaborators. Besides Berthes personal experience in prison, through her diary, we also get accounts on how the other people were treated. France gets invaded on May 10, 1940 by the Nazis. On June 22, 1940, France signs treay of peace with the Nazis. Paris is liberated on August 25, 1944. The setting begins in the August of 1944 in Toulouse, France. It was a time of despair and confusion. France was in a chaos. People were hungry and were left in poor conditions. The Germans had finally left Toulouse after their defeat. Joy came at first to the French when the Liberation finally came, yet it soon turned to hatred and vengeance. There was hatred to those that had helped the Germans succeed and also for those that allied with the Germans. These people were labeled collaborators. Even men and women that were seen with Germans were hated. They were tracked down and even arrested. Some were Berthe A. was the director of laboratory research in the Faculty of Science at the University of Toulouse. On the twenty-second of August in 1944, at about three oclock (according to Berthe), someone knocked on her door and soon enough Berthe was arrested. Of those that were arrested, many did not know ...

Comparison between the retail revolutions in the UK and US Essay

Comparison between the retail revolutions in the UK and US - Essay Example Lao (2008) pointed that the transformation of economic sphere thru retail system generated both social acceptance and disdain because the development of chain stores have also marginalized the small retailers that lacked the capacity to offer first class convenience, a feature preferred by most consumers for comfort while shopping. Its adverse impact leads to the closure of small bookstores, eyewear, footwear and the like as branded goods enter the chain stores (Lao, 2008). This reality is true for United States of America (USA) and United Kingdom (UK). In the last four decades, the countries’ retail revolution boom with the influx of chain â€Å"stores, supermarkets and self-service stores† (Lao, 2008). The UK and the Retail Industry It’s just lately when UK retail trade is dominated by small shops run by the whole family which offers services to the market for long hours and sometimes round the clock. This system also engenders personal relations with customers as owners sometimes allow credit. Others employ salesmen for home delivery services or for mobile selling. Lao (2008) however pointed that retailer and consumer relations in the UK was affected when large chains like Fine Fare, Sainsbury’s, Tesco and other food stores started to operate with express leverage in bargaining power and in offering cheaper prices of pre-packed fresh goods in the markets compared to that of â€Å"old small proprietary stores.† As a consequence, old corner shop closed in favor of thriving convenient well-stocked stores.; employment shifted from proprietary to supermarket chains; and relationships were formalized by using checkout counter and digitized sales and accounting. Stores restructured and employed educated salespersons and managers. And as competition heightened, proprietary retailers and wholesalers organized themselves into association to devise their own promotions, pricing of products, and mechanism to retain customers. With these turn of events, it is likely that dominant chain will rise and proprietary stores die in the absence clear state policies that protect small retailers. This affirmed fears that with retail owners allying themselves to protect their corporate interests, the retail grocery will maintain its oligopolistic character (Burt &

Obesity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 7

Obesity - Essay Example cal and social economic aspects have been termed as contributing factors to obesity in adults, more so in developed countries such as the U.S and the U.K (Friedman 633). Several psychological factors lead to obesity. Among the factors, include the increased food variety. According to research carried out by the American Psychological Association (APA), when individuals get more assortment in their food selections, they have a tendency to eat more (Wyatt et al. 168). One probable reason could be that the first few food bites tend to be the sweetest, but as one get used to the taste, less pleasure is gotten out of it (Wyatt et al. 168). This prompts the individual to move to the next food choice. The other psychological aspect causing obesity is the increased marketing approaches from Big Food. Similar to the strategies utilized in advertising tobacco, food industries have become well versed in psychological research regarding how to influence the choice of individuals. Further, one’s attitude towards managing his own emotions is another aspect that has led to the increase in obesity among adults (Wyatt et al. 171). For instance, when individua ls feel a sense of stigmatization due to their weight, they are inclined to get involved in more unhealthy habits of eating. Additionally, food addiction is also a major psychological aspect causing obesity. It is possible for an individual to become addicted to food, as people get addicted to alcohol and drugs. While this remains controversial, more evidence in emerging to support it. Similar to the psychological impacts causing obesity, there are also numerous socioeconomic aspects, which have led to a drastic increment of obesity, in both the U.S and the U.K. Firstly, the socioeconomic status (SES) of an individual impact his or her eating habits (Ogden 11). On that note, people with a high socioeconomic status are less likely to be obese since tend to practice healthy eating, as well as regular exercise. However, those

Food Industry Analysis Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Food Industry Analysis Paper - Essay Example This is not so with the food industry because it is a basic physical need. It may be that some luxury foods are done away with during times of economic crisis, but the food industry as a whole can be rest assured that it will be around for a long time to come. As the population of this country grows, so will the number of mouths that are needed to be fed. This ensures that should increase year-on-year for a long time to come. The purpose of this paper is to look at the strengths of the various categories of the food industry and determine how an increase in sales is reflected by increases in employment numbers, employee wages, and the number of restaurants. Because this is such a large industry and covers tens of millions of people, I will focus specifically on New York City. The reason why I chose this place was because the city is famous for always being on the move. The diversity in the city means that there are many ethnic food restaurants available for customers to eat at. My hy pothesis is that as the sales of the food industry are increasing, so must employment numbers, employee wages, and the number of restaurants. For an industry that seems to be booming, it would make sense to reinvest profits back into the industry itself, thereby ensuring its success over the short and long term. The types of data that will be used in this paper are primary sources, such as the New York State Department of Labor and ReferenceUSA. To clarify what food restaurants will be taken into consideration, the NAICS code that will be looking at is 722211 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2002). This code specifically entails establishments that provide food services where the customer chooses his meal and pays for it before receiving it. To be clear, snack and non-alcoholic beverage bars will not be included in this analysis. The dependent variable in this paper will be the sales numbers for the food industry as a whole. It is very easy to locate these figures because they are complied by t he relevant departments each year for public knowledge. The scatter plot below shows the sales numbers in the food industry over the last few years: As can be seen from the graph, the food industry as a whole is growing year-on-year. Of course, the figure for 2012 is just an estimate since we don’t have those figures available yet. In fact, in the last couple of years, the slope has gotten steeper, which suggests that the pace of the food industry will not slow down anytime soon. On average, the food industry’s sales are increasing by $22.13 billion each year or around 3 to 4%. From this, we can say that the outlook for the food industry is positive unless some unforeseen disaster occurs. The slope for this graph is y = 22.13x + 167.26, based on a base year of 1990. Looking ahead to 2020, we can make a prediction of the sales of the food industry with this equation. The equation would be as follows: y = 22.13 (30) + 167.26 = $831.16 billion each year. Of course, the gr owth rate may change based on external factors that are outside of the food industry’s control. However, this figure gives a pretty good estimate of where the food industry will be by the end of this decade and shows that everything is looking positive. Now that we have shown that the sales for the food industry will continue to grow for some time yet, we need to see what is fueling that helping to fuel that growth. This paper will look at three independent variables: employee numbers, employee wages, and number of restaurants. For employee numbers, New York City can

Secretors And Non Secretors In Human Population Biology Essay

Secretors And Non Secretors In Human Population Biology Essay Human population can be categorized into secretors and non-secretors. They are categorized on the basis of presence or absence of the blood group antigens (A, B and H) in the body fluids and secretions, such as saliva, sweat, tears, semen, serum, mucus present in the digestive tract or respiratory cavities etc. Secretors are individuals that secrete blood group antigens in their body fluids while non-secretors are the individuals that do not secrete them in their body fluids and secretions. It is a known fact that ABO blood type is controlled by blood type coding genes present on the chromosome 9q34 but the secretor status of an individual is decided by interaction of a separate gene (called secreting gene) with these blood type genes. The presence of the secreting gene in a persons genome makes him a secretor and absence makes him a non secretor. The gene is designated as (Se) for Secretors and (se) for Non-secretors and it is entirely independent of the blood type A, B, AB or O. The individuals secreting antigens in the body fluid are designated as ABH secretors in blood banks. Individuals having O blood group secrete antigen H, A blood group secrete A and H antigens, B blood group secrete B and H antigens in the fluids. A secretor gene helps a person to gain a degree of protection against different environmental conditions especially the micro flora of a particular environment and also the lectins present in them. It helps them in promoting the growth of friendly, stable blood type intestinal bacterial ecosystem which depends on the blood type antigens present in the mucus of an individual. Secretor status does alter the carbohydrates present in the body fluids and their secretions and hence it also affects and influences the attachment and persistence of the micro flora present in the body. Secretors are at a higher advantage than non-secretors. Non-secretors have a potential health disadvantage. They possess many metabolic traits such as carbohydrate intolerance, immune susceptibilities. Different tests are available for determining an individuals secretor status. Most common test uses saliva or other body fluids of an individual for testing the secretor status. These tests are based on the princi ple of Agglutination Inhibition where the antigens are neutralized by the corresponding antibodies so that these antibodies will not be further be available to neutralize or agglutinate the same antigens residing on the red blood cells. ELISA could also be used for determining the presence of the secreted Lewis antigens in the saliva or other body fluids. Statistics Series, Place Reference Number Tested % Secretor % Non-secretor Frequency Frequency Negroes,New York (5) 178 61.2 38.8 0.38 0.62 Danes,Copenhagen (6) 263 74.0 26.0 0.49 0.51 Japanese,Japan . 424 75.7 24.3 0.51 0.49 Germans,Berlin (7) 363 78.0 22.0 0.53 0.47 Poles,Poland (8) 88 79.4 21.6 0.54 0.46 Whites, New York (9) 74 82.4 17.6 0.58 0.42 Finns, Helsinki (10) 196 86.3 13.7 0.63 0.37 American, Indians,New Mexico (11) 69 98.5 1.5 0.88 0.12 American, Indians, Utah (12) 79 100.0 0 1.00 0 The alleles Se and se differ in the frequency and have an anthropological value. They occur in different frequency in different populations. They have a high frequency in the American Indiana and a low frequency in the southern Indians. In US 20% of the population is secretors whereas 80% of the population consist of non-secretors. The fusion allele of the FUT2 (secretor type alpha(1,2)-fucosyltransferase) gene at a high frequency and a new se385 allele in a Korean population SECRETOR AND NON-SECRETOR A person secreting blood group antigens into the body fluids and other secretions like saliva, semen, tear, mucous in the digestive tract and respiratory cavities are named as secretors. In similar terms they put their blood type antigens in the body fluids. They secrete antigens according to their blood type, A secrete antigen A and H, B secret antigen B and H, O secrete antigen O and AB secrete A, B and H antigen. Secretors expresses Lewis b (Leb) antigens on the RBC where as non-secretor expresses Lewis a (Le a) on their RBC.These antigens in the body fluids give additional protection to the individual against the various microorganisms and the lectins present all around us. 15- 20% of the population consists of non-secretor. These individual fail to secrete the blood group antigens in their body fluids hence they become susceptible to bacterial and superficial yeast infections. A large no of them sometimes also suffer from the autoimmune disorder. This could also be correlated with the secretor and non-secretor phenotype. The body secretions of secretors and non-secretors differ quantitatively and also qualitatively. The type and quantity of the antigens present in it differ among different individuals. In some cases the non-secretors may contain the A and B antigens in the saliva but the quantity is less and even quality is very low hence they have similar functional problem. There are certain properties which are specific for secretors and differ in non-secretors. Some are listed below: Intestinal alkaline phosphatase activity ABH secretor correlates the activity of alkaline phosphatase and serum alkaline phosphatase present in the intestine. Non-secretors have low activity of alkaline phosphatase and serum alkaline phosphatase which is responsible for the breakdown of fat and assimilate calcium. Low molecular weight alkaline is present in both secretors and non-secretors and high molecular weight alkaline phosphatase is present only is secretors. Bacterial flora The ABH blood types influence the population of bacteria residing in the local vicinity of the gut mucin glycoproteins. Bacteria produce enzymes that have the capability to degrade the terminal sugar of ABH blood type antigens and which are consumed as food by them. The B antigen degrading bacteria produce enzyme to detach the terminal alpha-D-galactose and A antigen degrading bacteria produce enzyme to detach N-acetylgalactosamine which are used as a source of food by them. Blood clotting The secretor and the ABO genetics influence each other and influence the variance of the plasma concentration of vWf upto 60%. Raised levels of factor VIII and vWf may cause thrombotic and heart disease in future. Secretors have the slowest clotting time, thinnest blood, least tendency of platelet aggregation, low amount of factor VIII and von Willebrand factor (vWf). The non-secretors have highest clotting time, thick blood, high amount of factor VIII and von Willebrand factor (vWf) and low bleeding time. The blood viscosity is also influenced by the secretor phenotype. Lewis Phenotype Clotting Characteristics Le (a- b-)  Ã‚  highest activity of factor VIII and vWf Shortest bleeding times (especially in A, B and AB) Le (a+ b-) intermediate activity Shorter bleeding times (especially for O) Le (a- b+) lowest activity of factor VIII and vWf Longest bleeding times (especially for O) Lewis Blood Type and Clotting Factors Immunoglobulin levels ABH non-secretors have low levels of IgG immunoglobulin. The secretion of different concentration of different components of the blood group substances is controlled by the secretor gene and it also affects the phagocytic activity of the leucocytes which provides an added advantage to the non-secretors. The leucocytes of the non-secretors possess a greater ingestion power when compared to the secretors. The O and B blood group non-secretors have the highest phagocytic activity. The presence of level of anti-I in the serum of an individual is affected by the ABO group, secretor status and sex of the individual. The secretors females have a high level of anti-I in the serum as compared to the males. The non-secretor have low levels of IgA and IgG antibodies and hence have frequent problems with the heart valve. Genetics and Biochemical pathways The secretion of the blood group antigens in the body fluids and other secretions are genetically influenced by certain allelomorphic genes. Secretor gene contains two alleles Se and se. Se is dominant and hence is present in the homozygous or heterozygous condition in the secretors which lead to the secretion of antigens into the body fluids. se is recessive allele and is present in non-secretors in the homozygous condition. SeSe and seSe produces a dominant secretor phenotype and sese produces a recessive non-secretor phenotype. Basically three genes are responsible for the formation of the A and B antigens. They are namely ABO, Hh, and Sese genes encoding glycosyltransferases which produces the A and B antigens. H antigen present in the individual with O blood group is the precursor for the formation of A and B antigens. H antigen act as a backbone on which the A and B antigens are built up. The O gene is considered as amorphic. The allele Hh and Sese reside on each locus and are closely linked together. It is also suggested that one of the allele has arisen by the gene duplication of the other. The H allele is responsible for the production of H antigen on which antigen A and B are built. The second allele on the same locus is really rare. The product related to this allele hasnt been discovered yet and hence it is considered as amorph. The oligosaccharide responsible for the formation of the A and B antigen can exist in a simple linear fashion or a complex branched fashion. Infants A, B and H antigens contain high amount of linear chained oligosaccharide whereas oligosaccharides present in an adult contain high amount of branched chained oligosaccharides The A and B antigen is synthesized from a common intermediate known as substance H. The conversion is carried out by the addition of a sugar molecule to the non reducing end of the H oligosaccharide chains. This addition affects the reactivity of H antigen. The ABH substances are secreted in the Urinary respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract by mucous glands residing there. The secretor gene regulates the synthesis of blood group antigens in the superficial glands of gastric and small intestinal mucosa. The secretors and non-secretors produce A and B substances which are basically glycoproteins in pylorus and Brunners glands and produce A and B substances those are soluble in alcohol and glycosphingolipids in nature. The secretors also produce ABH substances in the prostate and lactating mammary glands. The secretion of breast is rich in H substance but poor in substance A and virtually absent in substance B. The synthesis of these substances in the exocrine acini of pancreas and secretory cells of sweat gland is not controlled by the secretor gene. The blood groups substances were also detected in the collecting tubules and calyxes of the secretors but it could not be concluded that whether they are produced by the kidneys or are generally excreted. These secretions were noticed in the eight to nine weeks old salivary glands and stomach and later it appears throughout the gastrointestinal tract. Glycosphingolipids carrying the A or B oligosaccharides are present on the membranes of RBCs, epithelial and endothelial cells and are also present in the plasma in the soluble form. The glycoproteins carrying the similar A and B oligosaccharides are responsible for their activity in the body fluids. In the body fluids they are present in the secreted form. The A and B oligosaccharides which do not contain the carrier proteins are present in the milk and urine. The chromosome 19 containsFUT 1 and FUT 2 genes which code for fucosyltransferase. FUT genes numbered from 1-7 and form clusters which are responsible for the production of enzymes called as fucosyltranferases. The cluster is located on chromosome 19q13.3. Fucosyltranferase helps in the formation of fucose moiety which is added to the H antigen and further gylcosylate the A or/and B antigens. H antigen is a basic blood group antigen present in each and every human being but the content varies in different individuals of the same ABO group. A general pattern indicates that its strength varies as O>A2>A2B>B>A1>A1B. Water soluble H antigen has been demonstrated in the saliva and the body fluids of the individuals.H antigens are fucose containing glycan units which are present on the glycolipids or glycoproteins residing on the erythrocytes membrane or in the secretions. The fucosylatedglycans are the substrate for the enzyme glycosytransferases that are responsible for the formation of the epitopes for A, B and Lewis blood group antigens. Secretors contain both the alleles whereas non secretor contains the null allele for FUT2 gene. The FUT 2 gene codes for fucosyltranferaseenzyme in the exocrine tissues which lead to formation of antigens in the body secretions and body fluids. The A and B genes produce glycosyltranferase that add sugar to oligosaccharide chains that is converted to H antigen. The H antigen are constructed on the oligosaccharide chain. The oligosaccharide chains could be of two type : Type 1 and type 2. 1 carbon of the terminal 6-carbon sugar b-D-galactose (Gal) is linked to the number 3 carbon of subterminal  N-acetyl-glucosamine  (GlcNAc) in Type 1 chains and to the number 4 carbon of GlcNAc in Type 2 chains. The glycosphingolipids present in the plasma and on the membranes of glandular and parenchymal cells and glycoproteins present on the cell surfaces or body fluids carry either the type 1 or type 2 chains. The glycolipids antigens present on the RBC contain type 2 chains. A gene-specifies N-acetyl-galactosaminyl-transferase and the B gene-specifies galactosaminyl-transferase and add   GalNAc   and  Gal   respectively in alpha (1-3) linkages to the same Gal which is acted on by the H gene transferase. The H gene produces fucosyltransferase that add fucose to the terminal Galactose molecule of type 2 chain. It forms an alpha (1-2) linkage. A and B antigens are constructed when the A and B transferases attach respective sugars to the type 1 or type 2 chain substituted with Fucose. The A alleles encode UDP-GalNAc: Fuc alpha1->2 Gal alpha1->3 N-acetyl-D-galactosaminyltransferase (alpha 1->3 GalNActransferase or histo-blood group A transferase). The B alleles encode UDP-Gal: Fuc alpha1->2 Gal alpha 1->3 galactosyltransferase (alpha 1->3 galactosyltransferase or histo-blood group B transferase). O alleles encode proteins without glycosyltransferase function The secretor gene FUT2 located at 19q13.3 and codes for the activity of the glycosyltransferasesin concert with the FUT1 gene coding for H antigen, needed to assemble both the ABO and Lewis blood groups.They are active in places like goblet and mucous gland cells which interact with each other and lead to secretions of antigens in the fluids. The expression patterns of both the genes are different. The FUT1 (H) gene is dominantly expressed in the erythroid tissues which lead to the formation of the H enzyme whereas the FUT2 (secretor) gene is expressed in the secretory tissues and lead to the formation of secretor enzyme. The product of the H enzyme or H gene resides on the erythrocytes and product of secretor gene resides on mucins in secretions. If an individual lack these alleles, he/she will not be able express the above active enzymes therefore they would lack the substrates for the A or B glycosyltransferases and hence they would not express the A and B epitopes. Relationship of ABH Secretor status and Lewis system Lewis typing is sometimes used for the de facto determination of the ABH secretor status. The production of Lewis antigens is genetically controlled. Individuals possessing the Lewis (Le) gene would produce the Lewis antigens which are carried in the plasma by different substances and are absorbed onto the Red blood Cells present in ones blood. The ABO determinants and H/h blood groups determinants are structurally related to Lewis blood determinants. FUT1 provide the glycans for glycosyltransferases which convert Lewis antigen to ABH antigens. FUT2 allele is expressed in the secretor and is responsible for the expression of type1 H determinant. The secretors convert their Lewis a antigen to Lewis b therefore they are (a-b+) and the non-secretor are (a+b-) as they lack the FUT2 responsible for glycosyltransferase which could convert Lewis a antigen to Lewis b antigen. Lewis (Le) gene and Secreting (Se) gene interact with each other. Initially Lewisais formed and if Se gene is absent in an individual the Lewisa substance is absorbed on the RBC and the individual is typed as Lewisa but in secretors the Se gene controls the activation of the H gene which causes addition of an additional sugar to Lewisa which convert it to Lewisb. Secretors contain both Lewisa and Lewisb in their plasma but absorb Lewisb preferentially on the red blood cells and the individual is typed as Lewisb. Hence we could interpret that presence of Lewis gene would type an individual as Lewisa positive or Lewisb negative or vice versa. An individual could not be positive for both. A person containing both Lewis gene and Secreting gene are typed as Lewisa negative and Lewisb positive whereas a person having the Lewis gene but not the secretor gene is typed as Lewisa positive and Lewisb negative. Individual who does not have Lewis gene regardless of secretor gene is typed as Lewisa negative and Lewisb negative. Note: Lewis Double Negative (LDN) is a sub type of non secretors but Lewis typing cannot be used for them to determine the ABH secretor status. Detection methods The presence and absence of the antigens in the body fluids could be detected by Agglutination Inhibition and Lewis typing. Agglutination Inhibition test could be divided into two parts:- Part I Antibody Neutralization: To determining ones secretor status, the saliva of the individual is mixed by the antiserum (Anti-A, Anti-B or Anti-H) available commercially. In secretors the soluble substances i.e. blood group antigens will react with the antibodies present in the antiserum and will get neutralized. Part II Agglutination Inhibition: The bed blood cells obtained commercially are added to the test mixture. In secretors agglutination of the RBC do not take place as no free antibodies are available to agglutinate them. All the antibodies have reacted with the soluble antigens present in the saliva whereas in non-secretors agglutination would occur upon addition of the RBC as no blood group antigens are present in the saliva so antibodies present in the antiserum are not neutralized and hence would be free to react with the test RBC cells which are added to the test mixture. Hence agglutination is a negative test for secretor status and positive test for the non-secretor status. Note: Anti-H lectin containing phytohaemagglutinin virtually specific for human RBC. Thirteen Cucurbitaceaespecies have been investigated for the anti-H activity present in their seed lectins. Lectins has been extracted and purified from Ulexeuropaeus seeds. It could be used to demonstrate the H secretor status of blood group O individual and also for subgrouping the blood group A individuals. Lewis typing: Individuals carrying the Lewis gene produce Lewis antigens that are carried by the plasma and are also adsorbed on the red blood cells. Lewis antigens do not reside only on the red blood cells. Initially the gene gives rise to Lewisa. If Se gene is present it activates H gene which interact with the Lewisa and add a sugar to Lewisa and hence get converted it to Lewisb. Both Lewisa and Lewisb in present in the plasma of the secretors. If the Se gene is not present then the Lewisa substance is adsorbed on the red cells and individuals are typed as Lewisa. The secretor status of an individual could be determined with help of Lewisa and Lewisb antibodies mixed with an individuals saliva and observing the agglutination macroscopically. Disease Susceptibility among Secretors and Non-secretors Digestive system Non-secretors are more prone to the diseases caused by the oral bacteria in the digestive system of an individual. It includes ulcers, celiac diseases gastric carcinoma pernicious anemia etc. It could lead to dysplasia or increase in the number of cavities present in the digestive tract. Non-secretors are less resistant to the infection caused by Helicobacter pylori which could lead to the formation of peptic and duodenal ulcers. It could easily colonize and cause inflammation in the non-secretors. The non-secretors lack the blood group antigens in the mucus secretions therefore H.pylori attach to the walls of the digestive tract and cause infection. The secretors have a tendency to secrete free ABH antigens in their intestinal secretions which effect the bacterial and lectins adherence to the microvilli present in the gut. The secretors produce these antigens and act as a competitive disadvantage from preventing H.pylori attachment. These antigens act as a decoy in the secretors whi ch prevent them from attaching with the host tissues. The non-secretors also show a lower IgG immune response to the H.pylori. They have excessive rate of bleeding, perforation and development of stomach ulcers but correlation between these complications and the secretor status have not been documented yet. The non-secretors are not able to turn off the digestive enzymes and hence they produce large amount of enzyme pepsin and hence are more prone to duodenal ulcers. 50% of the duodenal ulcers are present in non-secretors. 30-40% of group O individuals are affected by the duodenal ulcers and 15- 20 % are affected by the gastric ulcers. They act as a multiplicative risk factor with the gene coding for hyperpepsinogenemia I which impact in the risk of duodenal ulcers. Group A individuals have a higher tendency of having gastric cancer and pernicious anemia. Statistics shows that 20% of the group A individuals are affected by gastric cancers and 25% are affected by the pernicious anemi a. Oral pathology The non-secretors are more prone to oral diseases like mouth and esophagus cancer, epithelial dysplasia etc. They have more cavities than secretors. Diabetes The ABH non-secretors and Lewis negative (Le a-b-) individuals have a high risk of developing insulin dependent diabetes or complications arising from diabetes. Secretors with juvenile diabetes have a low chance of developing retinopathy. The ABH non secretors which are affected by insulin dependent diabetes mellitus the mean level of C3c and C4 is lower as compared to ABH secretors. Metabolic Syndrome X The Lewis negative men are predisposing to syndrome X and prothrombic metabolism. They have high levels of BMI, SBP, triglycerides and low rather fasting levels of serum insulin and plasma glucose. This relationship is not true for women and is only applicable for the men. Respiratory System   Secretors have an added protection against the harmful environmental assaults directed towards our lungs and as usual non-secretors have a health disadvantage. They are over represented among the people suffering from influenza viruses A and B, rhinoviruses, respiratory synsytial virus and echinoviruses. The secretors who are miners or smokers do receive a protection against the disastrous effects of the cigarette smoking. Asthma is very common among the individuals working in the coal mines. Upon research it was concluded that asthma among them is also related to the non-secretor phenotype present in them. The non-secretor has a tendency to snore and are more prone to COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease). Heart disease The ABH non-secretor phenotype have a high risk of developing myocardial infarction and Lewis negative individuals have a high risk of developing chronic heart disease (CHD) and also ischemic heart disease (IHD). They contain high levels of triglycerides. Alcoholism has a positive interaction with the Lewis negative individuals. Alcohol consumption is protective in these individuals. Autoimmune Disease   Autoimmune disorders such as ankylosing spondylitis, reactive arthritis, psoriatic arthropathy, Sjogrens syndrome, multiple sclerosis, and Graves disease are more prone in non-secretors. The ABH non-secretors affected with graves disease produces high levels of antitubulin antibodies as compared to secretors and are unable to produce the water soluble glycoproteins in the saliva. Fetal Loss and Infertility ABO antigens are also found on the sperm of the secretors. These are obtained from the seminal secretions present in them. ABO incompatibility could exist between the wife and husband if could affect the fertility of an individual. This issue has not been properly studied and is therefore under research. Rheumatic Fever The secretors and group O individuals are resistant to Rheumatic fever and more number of cases have been recorded in the non-secretors. Secretor status could also determine whether the rheumatic fever would be followed by streptococcal pharyngitis or not. Neisseria species The non-secretors who do not produce water soluble antigens in the saliva are at the risk of getting infected by Neisseria meningcococcal disease. The immune capabilities of the secretor provide a relative protection in the secretors. The ABH non-secretors produce low level of anti-meningococcal salivary IgM antibodies which provide protection to the secretors against the microorganism. Candida species Non-secretors are barriers of candida species and therefore are frequently affected by the candida infections. The glycocompounds secreted by secretors in the body fluids inhibit adhesins present on the yeast which are responsible for their adhesion with the body tissues. This leads to the development of the chronic hyperplastic Candidiasis. Statistics shows that 68% on the non-secretors are affected by chronic hyperplastic candidiasis. Non-secretor women are affected by recurrent idiopathic vulvovaginal Candidiasis. An individual with a combination of non-secretors and absence of Lewis gene are at relative risk of developing recurrent idiopathic vulvovaginal Candidiasis. Tumor Markers The individuals with inactive Se (se/se) alleles and homozygous active Le alleles (Le/Le) allele have a highest mean value of CA19-9 tumor marker. The Lewis negative individuals irrespective of Se genotype have negative values for CA19-9. The Lewis negative individuals have higher mean value for DU PAN-2 as compared to Le-positive individuals. We can conclude that CA 19-9 marker is not an appropriate tumor marker for Le-negative individuals but DU-PAN-9 is an appropriate tumor marker. Bacteria Urinary Tract Infections Non-secretors are at a higher risk of getting recurrent urinary tract infection (UTI) and renal scars as compared to secretors. This susceptibility is higher among negative Lewis subset. Statistics of a study done on women affected with recurrent urinary tract infection stated that 29% of the non-secretor women were affected by UTI and 26% of Lewis (a-b-) women were affected by the UTI. The non-secretor phenotype and blood group B and AB phenotype work together to increase the risk of UTI among women. Women and children suffering from renal scarring with and without the antibiotic treatment for UTI are prone to UTI and pyelonephritis. 55-60% of non-secretors develop renal scars and 16% on secretors develop renal scars. C-reactive protein levels, erythrocyte sedimentation rate and body temperature are higher in the non-secretors that in secretors with recurrent UTI. Conclusion It concludes that there exist a statistical association between the individuals blood-group secretor phenotype and the diseases they are susceptible to. So knowing your secretor status is advantageous as we can use the nutritional supplements more intelligently and effectively. It also makes us aware of the diseases, illness and metabolic dysfunction we are prone to, difference in the levels of intestinal alkaline phosphatase activity, propensities towards blood clotting, tumor markers and different ingredients of breast milk so that we can manage them before hand and would be prepared for them in the near future.

The Hound of the Baskervilles Essay -- English Literature

The Hound of the Baskervilles At the start of the story the setting is described through the legend of Sir Hugo Baskerville. Sir Hugo is described in the legend as a â€Å"wild, profane and godless man† This suggests that his inhumanity and â€Å"evil† make him a potentially viable enemy who will stop at nothing. It is Sir Hugo that sets the tone for the setting. Sir Hugo uses his power and Baskerville Hall as a prison for the young girl. She manages to escape by â€Å"the aid of the growth of ivy which covered the south wall.† The ivy indicated the age and wildness of the hall and its setting. The â€Å"moon† is â€Å"shining bright† and the act â€Å"which was liked to be done† on the moor adds to the sense of danger and isolation that we, as readers, encounter at the start of this tale. As grown men leave the impression of â€Å"screaming† and fear being associated with the moor, we are going to be given one final warning, â€Å"caution you to forbear from crossing the moor in those dark hours when the powers of evil are exalted† which tells us that this setting is both dangerous and a potential trap for those who dare to live there. We also learn about the death of Sir Charles. â€Å"The day had been wet† and the wild, untamed environment sets the tone perfectly for a mysterious death such as this. We are told that â€Å"there is a gate which leads out onto the moor.† This gate is like a barrier between the moor and Baskerville Hall that separates good from evil, and if anyone were to cross this barrier then anything could happen to them â€Å"Sir Charles lay on his face, his arms out, his fingers dug into the ground, and his features convulsed.† This creates a sense of isolation as it seems as if the only safe place on the entire moor is Baskerville H... ... find out who the man on the tor was. Watson says that â€Å"there was this feeling of an unseen force† out upon the moor, and because he is supposed to be acting as Sherlock’s eyes and ears, he is compelled to find out who or what this â€Å"unseen force† is. Watson goes up onto the tor which he describes as a â€Å"barren scene† and there he feels a â€Å"sense of loneliness and mystery and urgency.† Watson feels as if â€Å"the unknown might be lurking there,† and when Sherlock is discovered he reveals that the â€Å"figure of a man upon the tor† that Watson had seen upon the night of the convict hunt had indeed been Sherlock, when he admits â€Å"I was so imprudent as to allow the moon to rise behind me.† Because the unknown figure turns out to be Sherlock the mystery of the Barrymore at the window remains unsolved and the moor is still a place full of secrets and unanswered questions.

English Learning Methods Essay

Although most people can realize the importance of English in modern life. Mastering English is quite difficult for them, Why? Because they don’t find out a suitable way to learn. I state you about the way to learn English I think it is the best. It is combination of two factors: learning inside the class and learning outside the class. Learning inside the class is very necessary for learners for experience, a good environment for practicing and motivation of studying. Firstly, you should take part fully in class to get knowledge from teachers who can share their valuable experiences for studying English with us, and they also give comment or feed back about your mistakes if you have , they can explain about what you don’t understand the English lessons. Second, class is good environment for studying, is where we can communicate with your friends in English and check your knowledge level, beside when you learn inside the class, you have competition with others, which make you have more motivation for studying but joining in class every day isn’t still enough time for your practice to become a good learner. You should spend more time on practicing yourself at home. Learning English outside is also important. You can study English online at home with threes reasons: not spend much fees, have suitable lesson for each person and have more interesting for lessons. First learning English online at home, which decrease fees for us and don’t much time for moving, second there are many kinds of lesson which are suitable with each learner’s level, there are courses for beginners, both adults and children, as well as more advanced courses for those who work their way up through the lessons. The advanced lessons are also suitable for those who do have the basics of the English language and want to increase their skills in reading, speaking, listening and writing. Thirdly, having many funny activities from English online course. It makes learners more interesting for studying. For example, play funny games such as play cards, puzzle, crossword, or hangman. Moreover, you can watch English film, listen to English news, read English newspaper or chat with native speakers. Many people have the idea that learning English is a difficult process. In fact, the opposite is true and the language is really easy to learn if you spend time on practicing it everyday with above method. You will become a good learner English.

The Qualities That Make a Great President essays

The Qualities That Make a Great President essays The Qualities That Make a Good President Presidential election years generate a massive responsibility for the American voters. The public is charged with choosing the person who will serve as the next president. In order to decide who the best person for the job is, an evaluation must be performed of the candidates experience and qualities. Choosing the right person goes beyond political party affiliation, it goes to choosing the candidate with the right stuff. To begin with the voters must examine the traits that make a good president. Research suggests that stubbornness and disagreeableness are two traits associated with great presidents. Even though these are not admirable traits, they assist in the making of a great president. The president should be opinionated and willing to stand firm for what he believes is best for the country. Therefore, these qualities often equate to someone who is not easily swayed and is confident in his decisions. The president must be willing to take a stance for what he believes in to prove he is working in the best interest of the country. Additionally, researchers indicate that great presidents are more extroverted, open to experiences, assertive and focused on achievement and excitement. An extrovert is a very appealing personality to the public. The extroverts tend to be more concerned with the physical and social environment. The events they experience energize them. Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin Roosevelt, Ronald Reagan and Andrew Jackson were all considered extroverts as well as making the list of being one of the top ten presidents in American history. They are all known for their irrepressible energy that charmed the nation. As a matter of fact, Steven Rubenzer of the Harris County, Texas, mental health department said, Compared to other presidents those who were most open to new experiences are most likely to ...

Conquest

Conquest The day they landed was the most horrible day I have ever been forced to live through.The Soviet Union had begun to regroup. It was not immediately joined by the smaller and weaker nations that made up the northwestern region of the union.The independent nations of Latvia, Estonia, and Lithua would not follow under communist rule again; they were willing to die for their freedom. The U.S.S.R was unable to persuade the remaining components to rejoin them in their conquest and they were hasty to declare war on their counterparts.With war waging in Eastern Europe the United Nations took action. The leader of Russia's communist party and president rejected the UN's cease-fire treaty. Russia was expelled from the United Nations early the next day.The CIA agent, Newton, inched his way through the air conditioning make an effort to remain as quiet as possible. Once he reached the ventilator above the leader's bedroom he unveiled his device, a new prototype developed by his agency.English: A rtcarfest in San Francisco, United State...This devise would unscrew and disable any form of fastener. Using a laser divertor to abstract the laser alarm system path the agent lowered himself into the room.Waiting for the man, a smaller man yet more powerful. The door creaked open slowly and an exhausted fat man entered. As soon as the door had been closed the fat man's throat had been gashed and he lay in a pool of his own warm blood.The United States had volunteered to be a 'cut-off' regiment. We would put pressure on Russia to remove their troops from Eastern Europe and detain their troops in Russia. If they failed to comply with this mandate we would have no choice but to supply aid to Eastern Europe.My regiment was originally from the Southern California area;...

How Can Organisations Ensure that Information Held within their Essay

How Can Organisations Ensure that Information Held within their Information Systems is Secure - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that the business environment is highly competitive in the 21st century as free market economies, which run by the principles of supply and demand, are becoming more prevalent. While no economy is completely a free market economy without any government intervention, most economies are at least partially free market. This intensifies competition as businesses seek to attract customers based on prices, quality, and other unique selling propositions. An essential part of the business process is the processing and dissemination of information. Businesses rely upon accurate and quickly gathered information regarding markets, products, customers, ideas, and other aspects concerning the business, in order to properly plan and implement their future strategies. Businesses must also keep accurate records of their past, current, and future plans in order to function in an organized manner. As businesses must take due care of their possessions and ass ets to prevent damage or theft, businesses must also protect their information from being stolen or misused. While assets may be quite expensive and valuable for the firm, information is worth much more and has a higher risk involved. Cybercrime is at large in today’s technologically advanced world, in which thieves do not attempt to take physical assets from people, but directly aim to access intangible information, which is regarded as more valuable. Corporations keep their information safe on computers that are locked with passwords and only staff is permitted to access the information. However, often there are instances of information leaks or access to restricted records by competitors, which causes the business immense damage. Hackers and other cyber thieves access important information to commit frauds or to manipulate the business’s financial records. Many times, large amounts of cash are transferred from the business account to other accounts and they become i rretrievable. There are thousands of ways that businesses can suffer harm through the access of their personal information. Account numbers, financial information, customer records, meeting plans, and new business strategies are all recorded on computers and it is regarded as a safer place to put such information rather than in paper form where it is easily accessible to all. Unfortunately, while computers may be the safer place to put such information, saving it from ordinary people and ordinary thieves, yet it is still considerably unsafe from technologically perceptive cyber thieves and hackers. Hence, businesses must take several measures to protect themselves from cyber crimes and keep their information safe. Before the electronic means of controlling the access to data is discussed, it must also be noted that information may also be disseminated through employees and through simple discussion conducted by employees with outsiders. Businesses also take measures to protect thems elves from such situations as they are perhaps more likely to occur than even cybercrime. As mentioned above, employees are a primary source of information about a company and are the people who are given access to a company’s databases. The first and foremost method a company uses to protect its information from being openly disclosed or discussed is through a confidentiality agreement between a company and its employees. This legal document binds the employee within a secrecy agreement and ensures that the employee agrees to keep all the information regarding the company and its strategies confidential. In the case that such information is dispersed by the employee, the employee will be liable for losses and legal action can be taken against the employee.

Ozone Depletion Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ozone Depletion - Assignment Example Closer to the ground, in the troposphere, ozone is considered a pollutant with harmful effects on breathing and plants. However, the layer of â€Å"good† ozone lies in the stratosphere, between 20 to 40 kilometers from ground. It blocks most of the harmful ultraviolet rays that increase the risk of skin cancer, reduce yields in certain crops and also stress marine life from reaching the earth from sun (â€Å"Ozone - Good Up High Bad Nearby† 2009). The depletion of the ozone layer has been most noticeable over the Antarctic region where a â€Å"hole† is seasonally created every year in spring since late 1970s. This hole, actually a large area in the stratosphere with severely depleted ozone, grew to 26 million square kilometers in 1998 and its largest size recorded was in 2006 when it touched 29 million square kilometers (â€Å"Ozone hole maximum is up on 2007† 2008). The stratosphere above the Antarctic is crucial to maintaining the global average concentration of ozone layer. Ozone is unequally distributed around the globe and is concentrated near the poles (Is total ozone uniform over the globe?). The flow of winds to and from poles keeps the ozone in circulation globally. Depletion over the Antarctic, the area of highest concentration, contributes considerably to the net effect of overall ozone reduction in the atmosphere. It is also here that the thinning of this layer is most dramatic. Unlike other places, the chemicals, such as CFCs, that destroy ozone get trapped over the Antarctic during the dark winter through a unique phenomenon, the â€Å"polar vortex†, and become part of clouds that are unique to this region. Extreme cold also creates ice crystals in these clouds. During spring and summer, as the temperature warms, the ice crystals initiate reactions that break down the CFCs into more active chlorine molecules. These, in turn, break down the ozone molecules into oxygen (â€Å"Ozone Facts: What is the Ozone Hole?† 2009). As the ice